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| 霜 |
霜
霜（frost）是水氣（也就是氣態的水）在溫度很低時，凝固在固體表面的一種現象，跟雪很類似。嚴寒的冬天清晨，戶外植物上通常會結霜，這是因為夜間植物散熱的慢、地表的溫度又特別低、水氣散發不快，還聚集在植物表面時就結凍了，因此形成霜。科學上，霜是由冰晶組成，和露的出現過程是雷同的，都是空氣中的相對濕度到達100%時，水分從空氣中析出的現象，它們的差別只在於露點（水氣凝結成露的溫度）高於冰點，而霜點（水氣凝固成霜的溫度）低於冰點，因此只有近地表的溫度低於攝氏零度時，才會結霜。
在寒帶地區、高山地區的農業災害中，霜害是常見的名詞，為了避免蔬菜結霜之後被凍壞，多需倚賴溫室栽培的技術來增加農產量。
在中國節氣中，每年10月23日是霜降的開始。
外部聯結
- [http://science.yam.com/weather/water/wtr017.html 中國科普-霜的形成與消失]
Category:天氣
category:水體
ja:霜
農業
农业为通过培育动植物生产食品及工业原料的产业。农业属于第一产业，研究农业的科学是农学。农业有广泛的定义和狭义的定义。广泛的定义包括种植业、林业、畜牧业、水产。种植业为狭义的农业。
农业可分为：
- 种植业
- 林业
- 畜牧业
- 水产业
相关术语
- 农学家、农学、农业科学
- 农村、农民
- 联合国粮农组织
- 农业税、农业补贴
- 农业机械、农具
- 农业生产
- 农业合作社、农工商联合体
- 农场、屯垦
- 农业标准化、农业产业化
- 高效农业、绿色农业、生态农业、外向型农业、订单农业
- 粮食、饲料、水果、农产品、水产品、食品、绿色食品（无公害食品）
- 转基因
- 农药、生物农药
- 肥料、化肥、有机肥
- 农作物、经济作物
- 蔬菜、花卉、种子、植物、植被
- 病虫害、植物保护
- 畜牧业、林业
- 生产资料
- 自给自足、小农经济
-
category:农学
ja:農業
ko:농업
simple:Agriculture
節氣节气指二十四时节和气候，是中国古代中原地區发明的一种用来指导农事的历法。中國古代利用土圭實測日晷，將每年日影最長定為“日至”（又稱日長至、長至、夏至），日影最短為“日短至”（又稱短至、冬至）在春秋兩季各有一天的晝夜時間長短相等，便定為“春分”和“秋分”。在商朝时只有四个节气，到了周朝时发展到了八个，直到西汉时才成为了现在的二十四节气。《史記·太史公自序》的“論六家要旨”中就有提到陰陽、四時、八位、十二度、二十四節氣等概念。
二十四节气每一个分别相应于太阳在黄道上每运动15°所到达的一定位置。二十四节气又分为12个中气和12个节气，一一相间。二十四节气反映了太阳的周年视运动，所以在公历中它们的日期是基本固定的，上半年的节气在6日，中气在21日，下半年的节气在8日，中气在23日，二者前后不差1～2日。
二十四節氣的命名反應了季節、气候現象、气候變化三種。反應季節的是立春、春分、立夏、夏至、立秋、秋分、立冬、冬至，又稱八位；反應气候現象的是驚蟄、清明、小滿、芒種；反應气候變化的有雨水、穀雨、小暑、大暑、處暑、白露、寒露、霜降、小雪、大雪、小寒、大寒。
二十四节气
现代人根据太阳在黄道上的位置，准确地确定了二十四节气的具体时间：
春季
- 立春 太阳位于黄经315度，2月2-5日交节
- 雨水 太阳位于黄经330度，2月18-20日交节
- 惊蛰 太阳位于黄经345度，3月5-7日交节
- 春分 太阳位于黄经0度，3月20-22日交节
- 清明 太阳位于黄经15度，4月4-6日交节
- 谷雨 太阳位于黄经30度，4月19-21日交
夏季
- 立夏 太阳位于黄经45度，5月5-7日交节
- 小满 太阳位于黄经60度，5月20-22日交节
- 芒种 太阳位于黄经75度，6月5-7日交节
- 夏至 太阳位于黄经90度，6月21-22日交节
- 小暑 太阳位于黄经105度，7月6-8日交节
- 大暑 太阳位于黄经120度，7月22-24日交节
秋季
- 立秋 太阳位于黄经135度，8月7-9日交节
- 处暑 太阳位于黄经150度，8月22-24日交节
- 白露 太阳位于黄经165度，9月7-9日交节
- 秋分 太阳位于黄经180度，9月23-24日交节
- 寒露 太阳位于黄经195度，10月8-9日交节
- 霜降 太阳位于黄经210度，10月23-24日交节
冬季
- 立冬 太阳位于黄经225度，11月7-8日交节
- 小雪 太阳位于黄经240度，11月22-23日交节
- 大雪 太阳位于黄经255度，12月6-8日交节
- 冬至 太阳位于黄经270度，12月21-23日交节
- 小寒 太阳位于黄经285度，1月5-7日交节
- 大寒 太阳位于黄经300度，1月20-21日交节
二十四气节和文化
二十四节气歌
春雨驚春清榖天
夏滿芒夏暑相連
秋處露秋寒霜降
冬雪雪冬小大寒
每月两节不变更
最多相差一两天
上半年来六廿一
下半年来八廿三
二十四節令歌
打春陽氣轉 雨水沿河邊
驚蟄烏鴉叫 春分瀝皮幹
清明忙種麥 穀雨種大田
立夏鵝毛住 小滿雀來全
芒種五月節 夏至不納棉
小暑不算熱 大暑三伏天
立秋忙打靛 處暑動刀鐮
白露煙上架 秋分無生田
寒露不算冷 霜降變了天
立冬交十月 小雪地封嚴
大雪河叉上 冬至不行船
小寒進臘月 大寒又一年
各地諺語
- 中國:
- 河北石家莊：秋分早，霜降遲，寒露種麥正當時
- 清明前后，种瓜种豆。
- 植树造林，莫过清明
参见
- 闰年、闰月
- 农历、生肖、五行
- 天干、地支
- 公历、纪元、纪年、
- 阳历、阴历、阴阳历、历法
Category:季節
category:曆法
Category:節氣
ja:二十四節気
ko:이십사절기
Category:天氣category:氣象學
category:自然現象
ja:Category:気象
ko:분류:날씨
th:Category:สภาพอากาศ FossilFuels]
Fossil fuels, also known as mineral fuels, are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. The utilization of fossil fuels has fueled industrial development and largely supplanted water driven mills, as well as the burning of wood or peat for heat.
When generating electricity, energy from the combustion of fossil fuels is often used to power a turbine. Older generators often used steam generated by the burning of the fuel to turn the turbine, but in newer power plants the gases produced by burning of the fuel turn a gas turbine directly.
The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the major source of emissions of carbon dioxide which is one of the greenhouse gases that is believed to contribute to global warming. A small amount of hydrocarbon-based fuels are biofuels which are derived from atmospheric carbon dioxide and thus do not increase the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. With global modernization, the global thirst for energy from fossil fuels, especially gasoline derived from oil, is one of the root causes and motivation of major regional and global conflicts. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore underway to help meet the increased global energy needs.
Origin
There are two theories on the origin of "fossil" fuels: the mainstream biogenic theory and the abiogenic theory. The two theories have been intensely debated since the 1860s, shortly after the discovery of widespread petroleum. According to the biogenic theory, fossil fuels are the altered remnants of ancient plant and animal life deposited in sedimentary rocks. The organic molecules associated with these organisms forms a group of chemicals known as kerogens which are then transformed into hydrocarbons by the process of catagenesis. The term Fossil fuel is thus the result of this theory. According to the abiogenic theory, hydrocarbon deposits are primordial, being part of the Earth as it formed.
The abiogenic theory was favored early because in the late 19th century it was believed that the Earth was extremely hot (possibly molten rock) during its formation. This would have precluded the accretion of hydrocarbons, which would have been oxidized into water and carbon dioxide. When it was later discovered that all fossil fuels contain traces of biological debris, the biogenic theory gained further support, especially in light of the unlikelihood that life (even microbial life) could exist at the depths at which petroleum had been found.
While research in the abiogenic theory is in progress, it is abundantly clear from palynology (the study of fossil pollen grains) that the world's major oil supplies have an organic origin, and are therefore likely to be more limited in availability than might be possible under the abiogenic theory. For details on the subject see the article Abiogenic petroleum origin.
A limited resource
:
Abiogenic petroleum origin
Oil is believed to be a finite resource. Even if abiogenic oil were possibly the source, the theory is not of practical use unless significant deposits are discovered. Significant usage of renewable energy sources such as hydroelectricity and nonrenewable nuclear power and scientific advances have reduced the dependency on fossil fuels, of which household usage has increased nonetheless. Petroleum is also important because it is a source of petrochemicals, for which there are a vast variety of uses.
The principle of supply and demand suggests that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable energy supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other renewable energy sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional petroleum reserves, but may then become economically viable. See future energy development.
See also
- List of energy topics
- Hubbert peak
- Future energy development
- Renewable energy and biofuels.
- Soft energy path
- Hydrogen car
- Abiogenic petroleum origin
External links
- [http://www.futurecrisis.com Fossil Fuel News and Energy Information Resources]
- [http://www.people.cornell.edu/pages/tg21/usgs.html U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper #1570, The Future of Energy Gases, 1993], Thomas Gold
- [http://www.gasresources.net/DisposalBioClaims.htm Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural Petroleum.]
- [http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Oil/ Oil Energy -- Its Impact] - Resources pertaining to oil energy and its consequences of impact on the earth, both environmental as well as geopolitical; and why we need to seek alternative energy sources. (FreeEnergyNews.com)
- [http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Theory/SustainableOil/ Peak Oil -- NOT!] - addresses Magma oil, which says that some oil comes from non-biological origin and isrenewable.(FreeEnergyNews.com)
- [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/PP/sop1.html]
University of Texas academic site that mentions that pollen grains - which come from trees - are used to help locate new oil deposits. This proves a biological origin.
- [http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/earth/geoscience/beaudoin.html]
Another link that describes stratigraphic palynology. If oil exploration uses pollen grains to locate new oil sources, then clearly oil is from organic origins.
Category:Geology
ja:化石燃料
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